1. 32 Byte Encryption Key Generator Software
2. Where To Find Encryption Key
3. 32 Byte Key Generator
4. Aes Encryption Key Generator

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This chapter contains:

See Also:

• Oracle Database 2 Day + Security Guide for an introduction to network encryption

• Oracle Database Advanced Security Administrator's Guide for information about using transparent data encryption and tablespace encryption

Security Problems That Encryption Does Not Solve

While there are many good reasons to encrypt data, there are many reasons not to encrypt data. Encryption does not solve all security problems, and may make some problems worse. The following sections describe some misconceptions about encryption of stored data:

Principle 1: Encryption Does Not Solve Access Control Problems

Most organizations need to limit data access to users who need to see this data. For example, a human resources system may limit employees to viewing only their own employment records, while allowing managers of employees to see the employment records of subordinates. Human resource specialists may also need to see employee records for multiple employees.

Typically, you can use access control mechanisms to address security policies that limit data access to those with a need to see it. Oracle Database has provided strong, independently evaluated access control mechanisms for many years. It enables access control enforcement to a fine level of granularity through Virtual Private Database.

Because human resource records are considered sensitive information, it is tempting to think that all information should be encrypted for better security. However, encryption cannot enforce granular access control, and it may hinder data access. For example, an employee, his manager, and a human resources clerk may all need to access an employee record. If all employee data is encrypted, then all three must be able to access the data in unencrypted form. Therefore, the employee, the manager and the human resources clerk would have to share the same encryption key to decrypt the data. Encryption would, therefore, not provide any additional security in the sense of better access control, and the encryption might hinder the proper or efficient functioning of the application. An additional issue is that it is difficult to securely transmit and share encryption keys among multiple users of a system.

A basic principle behind encrypting stored data is that it must not interfere with access control. For example, a user who has the SELECT privilege on emp should not be limited by the encryption mechanism from seeing all the data he is otherwise allowed to see. Similarly, there is little benefit to encrypting part of a table with one key and part of a table with another key if users need to see all encrypted data in the table. In this case, encryption adds to the overhead of decrypting the data before users can read it. If access controls are implemented well, then encryption adds little additional security within the database itself. A user who has privileges to access data within the database has no more nor any less privileges as a result of encryption. Therefore, you should never use encryption to solve access control problems.

Principle 2: Encryption Does Not Protect Against a Malicious Database Administrator

Some organizations, concerned that a malicious user might gain elevated (database administrator) privileges by guessing a password, like the idea of encrypting stored data to protect against this threat. However, the correct solution to this problem is to protect the database administrator account, and to change default passwords for other privileged accounts. The easiest way to break into a database is by using a default password for a privileged account that an administrator allowed to remain unchanged. One example is SYS/CHANGE_ON_INSTALL.

While there are many destructive things a malicious user can do to a database after gaining the DBA privilege, encryption will not protect against many of them. Examples include corrupting or deleting data, exporting user data to the file system to email the data back to himself to run a password cracker on it, and so on.

Some organizations are concerned that database administrators, typically having all privileges, are able to see all data in the database. These organizations feel that the database administrators should administer the database, but should not be able to see the data that the database contains. Some organizations are also concerned about concentrating so much privilege in one person, and would prefer to partition the DBA function, or enforce two-person access rules.

It is tempting to think that encrypting all data (or significant amounts of data) will solve these problems, but there are better ways to protect against these threats. For example, Oracle Database supports limited partitioning of DBA privileges. Oracle Database provides native support for SYSDBA and SYSOPER users. SYSDBA has all privileges, but SYSOPER has a limited privilege set (such as startup and shutdown of the database).

32 Byte Encryption Key Generator Software

Furthermore, you can create smaller roles encompassing several system privileges. A jr_dba role might not include all system privileges, but only those appropriate to a junior database administrator (such as CREATE TABLE, CREATE USER, and so on).

Oracle Database also enables auditing the actions taken by SYS (or SYS-privileged users) and storing that audit trail in a secure operating system location. Using this model, a separate auditor who has root privileges on the operating system can audit all actions by SYS, enabling the auditor to hold all database administrators accountable for their actions.

See 'Auditing SYS Administrative Users' for information about ways to audit database administrators.

You can also fine-tune the access and control that database administrators have by using Oracle Database Vault. See Oracle Database Vault Administrator's Guide for more information.

The database administrator function is a trusted position. Even organizations with the most sensitive data, such as intelligence agencies, do not typically partition the database administrator function. Instead, they manage their database administrators strongly, because it is a position of trust. Periodic auditing can help to uncover inappropriate activities.

Encryption of stored data must not interfere with the administration of the database, because otherwise, larger security issues can result. For example, if by encrypting data you corrupt the data, then you create a security problem, the data itself cannot be interpreted, and it may not be recoverable.

You can use encryption to limit the ability of a database administrator or other privileged user to see data in the database. However, it is not a substitute for managing the database administrator privileges properly, or for controlling the use of powerful system privileges. If untrustworthy users have significant privileges, then they can pose multiple threats to an organization, some of them far more significant than viewing unencrypted credit card numbers.

Principle 3: Encrypting Everything Does Not Make Data Secure

A common error is to think that if encrypting some data strengthens security, then encrypting everything makes all data secure.

As the discussion of the previous two principles illustrates, encryption does not address access control issues well, and it is important that encryption not interfere with normal access controls. Furthermore, encrypting an entire production database means that all data must be decrypted to be read, updated, or deleted. Encryption is inherently a performance-intensive operation; encrypting all data will significantly affect performance.

Availability is a key aspect of security. If encrypting data makes data unavailable, or adversely affects availability by reducing performance, then encrypting everything will create a new security problem. Availability is also adversely affected by the database being inaccessible when encryption keys are changed, as good security practices require on a regular basis. When the keys are to be changed, the database is inaccessible while data is decrypted and reencrypted with a new key or keys.

There may be advantages to encrypting data stored off-line. For example, an organization may store backups for a period of 6 months to a year off-line, in a remote location. Of course, the first line of protection is to secure the facility storing the data, by establishing physical access controls. Encrypting this data before it is stored may provide additional benefits. Because it is not being accessed on-line, performance need not be a consideration. While an Oracle database does not provide this capability, there are vendors who provide encryption services. Before embarking on large-scale encryption of backup data, organizations considering this approach should thoroughly test the process. It is essential to verify that data encrypted before off-line storage can be decrypted and re-imported successfully.

Data Encryption Challenges

In cases where encryption can provide additional security, there are some associated technical challenges, as described in the following sections:

Encrypting Indexed Data

Special difficulties arise when encrypted data is indexed. For example, suppose a company uses a national identity number, such as the U.S. Social Security number (SSN), as the employee number for its employees. The company considers employee numbers to be sensitive data, and, therefore, wants to encrypt data in the employee_number column of the employees table. Because employee_number contains unique values, the database designers want to have an index on it for better performance.

However, if DBMS_CRYPTO or the DBMS_OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT (or another mechanism) is used to encrypt data in a column, then an index on that column will also contain encrypted values. Although an index can be used for equality checking (for example, SELECT * FROM emp WHERE employee_number = '987654321'), if the index on that column contains encrypted values, then the index is essentially unusable for any other purpose. You should not encrypt indexed data.

Oracle recommends that you do not use national identity numbers as unique IDs. Instead, use the CREATE SEQUENCE statement to generate unique identity numbers. Reasons to avoid using national identity numbers are as follows:

• There are privacy issues associated with overuse of national identity numbers (for example, identity theft).

• Sometimes national identity numbers can have duplicates, as with U.S. Social Security numbers.

Generating Encryption Keys

Encrypted data is only as secure as the key used for encrypting it. An encryption key must be securely generated using secure cryptographic key generation. Oracle Database provides support for secure random number generation, with the RANDOMBYTES function of DBMS_CRYPTO. (This function replaces the capabilities provided by the GetKey procedure of the earlier DBMS_OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT.) DBMS_CRYPTO calls the secure random number generator (RNG) previously certified by RSA Security.

Note:

Do not use the DBMS_RANDOM package. The DBMS_RANDOM package generates pseudo-random numbers, which, as Randomness Recommendations for Security (RFC-1750) states that using pseudo-random processes to generate secret quantities can result in pseudo-security.

Be sure to provide the correct number of bytes when you encrypt a key value. For example, you must provide a 16-byte key for the ENCRYPT_AES128 encryption algorithm.

Transmitting Encryption Keys

If the encryption key is to be passed by the application to the database, then you must encrypt it. Otherwise, an intruder could get access to the key as it is being transmitted. Network encryption, such as that provided by Oracle Advanced Security, protects all data in transit from modification or interception, including cryptographic keys.

Storing Encryption Keys

Storing encryption keys is one of the most important, yet difficult, aspects of encryption. To recover data encrypted with a symmetric key, the key must be accessible to an authorized application or user seeking to decrypt the data. At the same time, the key must be inaccessible to someone who is maliciously trying to access encrypted data that he is not supposed to see.

The options available to a developer are:

Storing the Encryption Keys in the Database

Storing the keys in the database cannot always provide infallible security if you are trying to protect against the database administrator accessing encrypted data. An all-privileged database administrator could still access tables containing encryption keys. However, it can often provide good security against the casual curious user or against someone compromising the database file on the operating system.

As a trivial example, suppose you create a table (EMP) that contains employee data. You want to encrypt the employee Social Security number (SSN) stored in one of the columns. You could encrypt employee SSN using a key that is stored in a separate column. However, anyone with SELECT access on the entire table could retrieve the encryption key and decrypt the matching SSN.

While this encryption scheme seems easily defeated, with a little more effort you can create a solution that is much harder to break. For example, you could encrypt the SSN using a technique that performs some additional data transformation on the employee_number before using it to encrypt the SSN. This technique might be as simple as using an XOR operation on the employee_number and the birth date of the employee to determine the validity of the values.

As additional protection, PL/SQL source code performing encryption can be wrapped, (using the WRAP utility) which obfuscates (scrambles) the code. The WRAP utility processes an input SQL file and obfuscates the PL/SQL units in it. For example, the following command uses the keymanage.sql file as the input:

A developer can subsequently have a function in the package call the DBMS_OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT with the key contained in the wrapped package.

Oracle Database enables you to obfuscate dynamically generated PL/SQL code. The DBMS_DDL package contains two subprograms that allow you to obfuscate dynamically generated PL/SQL program units. For example, the following block uses the DBMS_DDL.CREATE_WRAPPED procedure to wrap dynamically generated PL/SQL code.

While wrapping is not unbreakable, it makes it harder for an intruder to get access to the encryption key. Even in cases where a different key is supplied for each encrypted data value, you should not embed the key value within a package. Instead, wrap the package that performs the key management (that is, data transformation or padding).

See Also:

Oracle Database PL/SQL Language Reference for additional information about the WRAP command line utility and the DBMS_DDL subprograms for dynamic wrapping

An alternative to wrapping the data is to have a separate table in which to store the encryption key and to envelope the call to the keys table with a procedure. The key table can be joined to the data table using a primary key to foreign key relationship. For example, employee_number is the primary key in the employees table that stores employee information and the encrypted SSN. The employee_number column is a foreign key to the ssn_keys table that stores the encryption keys for the employee SSN. The key stored in the ssn_keys table can also be transformed before use (by using an XOR operation), so the key itself is not stored unencrypted. If you wrap the procedure, then that can hide the way in which the keys are transformed before use.

The strengths of this approach are:

• Users who have direct table access cannot see the sensitive data unencrypted, nor can they retrieve the keys to decrypt the data.

• Access to decrypted data can be controlled through a procedure that selects the encrypted data, retrieves the decryption key from the key table, and transforms it before it can be used to decrypt the data.

• The data transformation algorithm is hidden from casual snooping by wrapping the procedure, which obfuscates the procedure code.

• SELECT access to both the data table and the keys table does not guarantee that the user with this access can decrypt the data, because the key is transformed before use.

The weakness to this approach is that a user who has SELECT access to both the key table and the data table, and who can derive the key transformation algorithm, can break the encryption scheme.

The preceding approach is not infallible, but it is adequate to protect against easy retrieval of sensitive information stored in clear text.

Storing the Encryption Keys in the Operating System

Storing keys in a flat file in the operating system is another option. Oracle Database enables you to make callouts from PL/SQL, which you could use to retrieve encryption keys. However, if you store keys in the operating system and make callouts to it, then your data is only as secure as the protection on the operating system. If your primary security concern is that the database can be broken into from the operating system, then storing the keys in the operating system makes it easier for an intruder to retrieve encrypted data than storing the keys in the database itself.

Users Managing Their Own Encryption Keys

Having the user supply the key assumes the user will be responsible with the key. Considering that 40 percent of help desk calls are from users who have forgotten their passwords, you can see the risks of having users manage encryption keys. In all likelihood, users will either forget an encryption key, or write the key down, which then creates a security weakness. If a user forgets an encryption key or leaves the company, then your data is not recoverable.

If you do decide to have user-supplied or user-managed keys, then you need to ensure you are using network encryption so that the key is not passed from the client to the server in the clear. You also must develop key archive mechanisms, which is also a difficult security problem. Key archives and backdoors create the security weaknesses that encryption is attempting to solve.

Using Transparent Database Encryption and Tablespace Encryption

Transparent database encryption and tablespace encryption provide secure encryption with automatic key management for the encrypted tables and tablespaces. If the application requires protection of sensitive column data stored on the media, then these two types of encryption are a simple and fast way of achieving this.

See Also:

Oracle Database Advanced Security Administrator's Guide for more information about transparent data encryption

Changing Encryption Keys

Prudent security practice dictates that you periodically change encryption keys. For stored data, this requires periodically unencrypting the data, and reencrypting it with another well-chosen key. You would most likely change the encryption key while the data is not being accessed, which creates another challenge. This is especially true for a Web-based application encrypting credit card numbers, because you do not want to shut down the entire application while you switch encryption keys.

Encrypting Binary Large Objects

Certain data types require more work to encrypt. For example, Oracle Database supports storage of binary large objects (BLOBs), which stores very large objects (for example, multiple gigabytes) in the database. A BLOB can be either stored internally as a column, or stored in an external file.

For an example of using DBMS_CRYPTO on BLOB data, see 'Example of Encryption and Decryption Procedures for BLOB Data'.

Storing Data Encryption by Using the DBMS_CRYPTO Package

The DBMS_CRYPTO package provides several ways to address the security issues that were discussed. (For backward compatibility, DBMS_OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT is also provided.)

While encryption is not the ideal solution for addressing several security threats, it is clear that selectively encrypting sensitive data before storage in the database does improve security. Examples of such data could include:

• Credit card numbers

• National identity numbers

Oracle Database provides the PL/SQL package DBMS_CRYPTO to encrypt and decrypt stored data. This package supports several industry-standard encryption and hashing algorithms, including the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) encryption algorithm. AES was approved by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to replace the Data Encryption Standard (DES).

The DBMS_CRYPTO package enables encryption and decryption for common Oracle Database data types, including RAW and large objects (LOBs), such as images and sound. Specifically, it supports BLOBs and CLOBs. In addition, it provides Globalization Support for encrypting data across different database character sets.

The following cryptographic algorithms are supported:

• Data Encryption Standard (DES), Triple DES (3DES, 2-key)

• Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

• SHA-1 Cryptographic Hash

• SHA-1 Message Authentication Code (MAC)

Block cipher modifiers are also provided with DBMS_CRYPTO. You can choose from several padding options, including Public Key Cryptographic Standard (PKCS) #5, and from four block cipher chaining modes, including Cipher Block Chaining (CBC). Padding must be done in multiples of eight bytes.

Note:

• DES is no longer recommended by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

• Usage of SHA-1 is more secure than MD5.

• Keyed MD5 is not vulnerable.

Table 8-1 compares the DBMS_CRYPTO package features to the other PL/SQL encryption package, the DBMS_OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT.

Table 8-1 DBMS_CRYPTO and DBMS_OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT Feature Comparison

Package Feature	DBMS_CRYPTO	DBMS_OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT
Cryptographic algorithms	DES, 3DES, AES, RC4, 3DES_2KEY	DES, 3DES
Padding forms	PKCS5, zeroes	None supported
Block cipher chaining modes	CBC, CFB, ECB, OFB	CBC
Cryptographic hash algorithms	SHA-1, MD4, MD5	MD5
Keyed hash (MAC) algorithms	HMAC_MD5, HMAC_SH1	None supported
Cryptographic pseudo-random number generator	RAW, NUMBER, BINARY_INTEGER	RAW, VARCHAR2
Database types	RAW, CLOB, BLOB Since they can show you the results of how your work will work on different algorithms. As well as you will be capable of enhancing your work with ease. There are several apps in the applications that help you test your work. Matlab 2014 license key generator. So, you can use them with ease. This has proven more secure over standard username/password authentication. More information on SSH keys can be found.You can generate an SSH key pair directly in cPanel, or you can generate the keys yourself and just upload the public one in cPanel to use with your hosting account.When generating SSH keys yourself under Linux, you can use the ssh-keygen command. Open up the Terminal. Generate ssh key pair digitalocean. To do so follow these steps:. SiteGround uses key-based authentication for SSH.	RAW, VARCHAR2

DBMS_CRYPTO is intended to replace the OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT package, because it is easier to use and supports a range of algorithms that accommodate both new and existing systems. Although 3DES_2KEY and MD4 are provided for backward compatibility, you achieve better security using 3DES, AES, or SHA-1. Therefore, 3DES_2KEY is not recommended.

The DBMS_CRYPTO package includes cryptographic checksum capabilities (MD5), which are useful for comparisons, and the ability to generate a secure random number (the RANDOMBYTES function). Secure random number generation is an important part of cryptography; predictable keys are easily guessed keys; and easily guessed keys may lead to easy decryption of data. Most cryptanalysis is done by finding weak keys or poorly stored keys, rather than through brute force analysis (cycling through all possible keys).

Note:

Do not use DBMS_RANDOM, because it is unsuitable for cryptographic key generation.

Key management is programmatic. That is, the application (or caller of the function) must supply the encryption key. This means that the application developer must find a way of storing and retrieving keys securely. The relative strengths and weaknesses of various key management techniques are discussed in the sections that follow. The DBMS_OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT package, which can handle both string and raw data, requires the submission of a 64-bit key. The DES algorithm itself has an effective key length of 56-bits.

Note:

The DBMS_OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT is granted to PUBLIC by default. Oracle recommends that you revoke this grant.

While the DBMS_OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT package can take either VARCHAR2 or RAW data types, it is preferable to use the RAW data type for keys and encrypted data. Storing encrypted data as VARCHAR2 can cause problems if it passes through Globalization Support routines. For example, when transferring a database to another database that uses another character set.

To convert between VARCHAR2 and RAW data types, use the CAST_TO_RAW and CAST_TO_VARCHAR2 functions of the UTL_RAW package.

See Also:

• Oracle Database PL/SQL Packages and Types Reference for detailed information about the DBMS_CRYPTO package

• Oracle Database PL/SQL Packages and Types Reference for detailed information about the OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT package

• Oracle Database PL/SQL Packages and Types Reference for detailed information about the UTL_RAW package

Examples of Using the Data Encryption API

This section contains:

Example of a Data Encryption Procedure

The following sample PL/SQL program (dbms_crypto.sql) shows how to encrypt data. This example code performs the following actions:

• Encrypts a string (VARCHAR2 type) using DES after first converting it into the RAW data type.

  This step is necessary because encrypt and decrypt functions and procedures in DBMS_CRYPTO package work on the RAW data type only, unlike functions and packages in the DBMS_OBFUSCATION_TOOLKIT package.

• Shows how to create a 160-bit hash using SHA-1 algorithm.

• Demonstrates how MAC, a key-dependent one-way hash, can be computed using the MD5 algorithm.

The dbms_crypto.sql procedure follows:

Example of AES 256-Bit Data Encryption and Decryption Procedures

The following PL/SQL block shows how to encrypt and decrypt a predefined variable named input_string using the AES 256-bit algorithm with Cipher Block Chaining and PKCS #5 padding.

Example of Encryption and Decryption Procedures for BLOB Data

The following sample PL/SQL program (blob_test.sql) shows how to encrypt and decrypt BLOB data. This example code does the following, and prints out its progress (or problems) at each step:

• Creates a table for the BLOB column

• Inserts the raw values into that table

• Encrypts the raw data

• Decrypts the encrypted data

The blob_test.sql procedure follows:

Finding Information About Encrypted Data

Table 8-2lists data dictionary views that you can query to access information about encrypted data. See Oracle Database Reference for detailed information about these views.

Where To Find Encryption Key

Table 8-2 Data Dictionary Views That Display Information about Encrypted Data

32 Byte Key Generator

View	Description
ALL_ENCRYPTED_COLUMNS	Describes encryption algorithm information for all encrypted columns in all tables accessible to the user
DBA_ENCRYPTED_COLUMNS	Describes encryption algorithm information for all encrypted columns in the database
USER_ENCRYPTED_COLUMNS	Describes encryption algorithm information for all encrypted columns in all tables in the schema of the user
V$ENCRYPTED_TABLESPACES	Displays information about the tablespaces that are encrypted
V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET	Displays information on the status of the wallet and the wallet location for transparent data encryption
V$RMAN_ENCRYPTION_ALGORITHMS	Displays supported encryption algorithms.

Aes Encryption Key Generator